Multi-Method Quantification of Acetyl-Coenzyme A and Further Acyl-Coenzyme A Species in Normal and Ischemic Rat Liver.

Thioesters of coenzyme A (CoA) carrying different acyl chains (acyl-CoAs) are central intermediates of many metabolic pathways and donor molecules for protein lysine acylation. Acyl-CoA species largely differ in terms of cellular concentrations and physico-chemical properties, rendering their analysis challenging. Here, we compare several approaches to quantify cellular acyl-CoA concentrations in normal and ischemic rat liver, using HPLC and LC-MS/MS for multi-acyl-CoA analysis, as well as NMR, fluorimetric and spectrophotometric techniques for the quantification of acetyl-CoAs. In particular, we describe a simple LC-MS/MS protocol that is suitable for the relative quantification of short and medium-chain acyl-CoA species. We show that ischemia induces specific changes in the short-chain acyl-CoA relative concentrations, while mild ischemia (1-2 min), although reducing succinyl-CoA, has little effects on acetyl-CoA, and even increases some acyl-CoA species upstream of the tricarboxylic acid cycle. In contrast, advanced ischemia (5-6 min) also reduces acetyl-CoA levels. Our approach provides the keys to accessing the acyl-CoA metabolome for a more in-depth analysis of metabolism, protein acylation and epigenetics.

Zirconium-Directed Supramolecular Self-Assembly of Coenzyme A@GNCs with Enhanced Phosphorescence for Developing Ultrasensitive Tracer Probe of Dipicolinic Acid, a Biomarker of Bacterial Spores.

Luminescent gold nanoclusters (GNCs) are a class of attractive quantum-sized nanomaterials bridging the gap between organogold complexes and gold nanocrystals. They typically have a core-shell structure consisting of a Au(I)-organoligand shell-encapsulated few-atom Au(0) core. Their luminescent properties are greatly affected by their Au(I)-organoligand shell, which also supports the aggregation-induced emission (AIE) effect. However, so far, the luminescent Au nanoclusters encapsulated with the organoligands containing phosphoryl moiety have rarely been reported, not to mention their AIE. In this study, coenzyme A (CoA), an adenosine diphosphate (ADP) analogue that is composed of a bulky 5-phosphoribonucleotide adenosine moiety connected to a long branch of vitamin B5 (pantetheine) via a diphosphate ester linkage and ubiquitous in all living organisms, has been used to synthesize phosphorescent GNCs for the first time. Interestingly, the synthesized phosphorescent CoA@GNCs could be further induced to generate AIE via the PO32- and Zr4+ interactions, and the observed AIE was found to be highly specific to Zr4+ ions. In addition, the enhanced phosphorescent emission could be quickly turned down by dipicolinic acid (DPA), a universal and specific component and also a biomarker of bacterial spores. Therefore, a Zr4+-CoA@GNCs-based DPA biosensor for quick, facile, and highly sensitive detection of possible spore contamination has been developed, showing a linear concentration range from 0.5 to 20 µM with a limit of detection of 10 nM. This study has demonstrated a promising future for various organic molecules containing phosphoryl moiety for the preparation of AIE-active metal nanoclusters.

Evolution of p-coumaroylated lignin in eudicots provides new tools for cell wall engineering.

Ester-linked p-coumarate (pCA) is a hallmark feature of the secondary cell walls in commelinid monocot plants. It has been shown that pCA groups arise during lignin polymerisation from the participation of monolignol conjugates assembled by p-coumaroyl-CoA:monolignol transferase (PMT) enzymes, members of the BAHD superfamily of acyltransferases. Herein, we report that a eudicot species, kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus), naturally contains p-coumaroylated lignin in the core tissues of the stems but not in the bast fibres. Moreover, we identified a novel acyltransferase, HcPMT, that shares <30% amino acid identity with known monocot PMT sequences. Recombinant HcPMT showed a preference in enzyme assays for p-coumaroyl-CoA and benzoyl-CoA as acyl donor substrates and sinapyl alcohol as an acyl acceptor. Heterologous expression of HcPMT in hybrid poplar trees led to the incorporation of pCA in lignin, but no improvement in the saccharification potential of the wood. This work illustrates the value in mining diverse plant taxa for new monolignol acyltransferases. Furthermore, the occurrence of pCA outside monocot lineages may represent another example of convergent evolution in lignin structure. This discovery expands textbook views on cell wall biochemistry and provides a new molecular tool for engineering the lignin of biomass feedstock plants.

Dissolution of Mn-bearing dolomite drives elevated Cr(VI) occurrence in a Permian redbed aquifer.

Municipalities in central Oklahoma, U.S.A. increasingly rely on water drawn from the Central Oklahoma Aquifer (COA) as surface water resources have not grown in proportion to population and current water demands. However, water drawn from certain regions of the COA frequently contains elevated levels of naturally occurring hexavalent chromium. Rock samples from the Norman Arsenic Test Hole Core (NATHC) were investigated to identify the mineralogic host(s) of Cr and mechanisms of Cr(VI) release via bulk mineralogy and chemistry measurements, selective chemical extractions, and microscale elemental analyses. Results demonstrate most COA Cr is contained in Fe oxides and clays as isomorphic substitutions for Fe(III). Analyses of regional groundwater data, including hierarchical clustering methods and GIS, demonstrate the most intense Cr(VI) occurrence is linked to cation exchange with Na-clays at depth. Cation exchange allows dissolution of Mn-bearing dolomite, which in turn produces Mn oxides in otherwise dolomite-saturated groundwaters. Mn oxides in turn are known to oxidize Cr(III) to Cr(VI). In general, co-occurrence of Mn-bearing carbonates and exchangeable clays in any aquifer, particularly those with Cr(III) present in iron oxide cements, serve as ingredients for groundwater occurrences of oxidizable trace metals.

A common approach for absolute quantification of short chain CoA thioesters in prokaryotic and eukaryotic microbes.

BACKGROUND: Thioesters of coenzyme A participate in 5% of all enzymatic reactions. In microbial cell factories, they function as building blocks for products of recognized commercial value, including natural products such as polyketides, polyunsaturated fatty acids, biofuels, and biopolymers. A core spectrum of approximately 5-10 short chain thioesters is present in many microbes, as inferred from their genomic repertoire. The relevance of these metabolites explains the high interest to trace and quantify them in microbial cells. RESULTS: Here, we describe a common workflow for extraction and absolute quantification of short chain CoA thioesters in different gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria and eukaryotic yeast, i.e. Corynebacterium glutamicum, Streptomyces albus, Pseudomonas putida, and Yarrowia lipolytica. The approach assessed intracellular CoA thioesters down to the picomolar level and exhibited high precision and reproducibility for all microbes, as shown by principal component analysis. Furthermore, it provided interesting insights into microbial CoA metabolism. A succinyl-CoA synthase defective mutant of C. glutamicum exhibited an unaffected level of succinyl-CoA that indicated a complete compensation by the L-lysine pathway to bypass the disrupted TCA cycle. Methylmalonyl-CoA, an important building block of high-value polyketides, was identified as dominant CoA thioester in the actinomycete S. albus. The microbe revealed a more than 10,000-fold difference in the abundance of intracellular CoA thioesters. A recombinant strain of S. albus, which produced different derivatives of the antituberculosis polyketide pamamycin, revealed a significant depletion of CoA thioesters of the ethylmalonyl CoA pathway, influencing product level and spectrum. CONCLUSIONS: The high relevance of short chain CoA thioesters to synthetize industrial products and the interesting insights gained from the examples shown in this work, suggest analyzing these metabolites in microbial cell factories more routinely than done so far. Due to its broad application range, the developed approach appears useful to be applied this purpose. Hereby, the possibility to use one single protocol promises to facilitate automatized efforts, which rely on standardized workflows.

Multiplexed Online Monitoring of Microfluidic Free-Flow Electrophoresis via Mass Spectrometry.

Free-flow electrophoresis is a tool for the continuous fractionation of electrically charged analytes. In this study, we introduce a novel method to couple microchip-based free-flow electrophoresis with mass spectrometry. The successive connection of multiple microchip outlets to the electrospray ionization source of a mass spectrometer is automated using a multiposition valve. With this novel setup, it is possible to continuously fractionate and collect compounds while simultaneously monitoring the process online with mass spectrometry. The functionality of the method is demonstrated by the successful separation and identification of the biomolecules AMP, ATP, and CoA, which are fundamental for numerous biochemical processes in every organism.

White pepper-derived ratiometric carbon dots for highly selective detection and imaging of coenzyme A.

A new-style white pepper derived dual-emission carbon dots (CDs) with a quantum yield of 10.4% was designed and facile constructed with one-pot solvothermal method. The green emission (520 nm) had an efficient and special "turn-on" fluorescence sensing of coenzyme A (CoA) with the aid of Cu2+, while red emission (668 nm) barely changed and worked as reference. In the concentration range (0-150 µM), relative fluorescence intensity ratios (F520/F668) showed excellent linear correlation with concentrations of CoA, and detection limit was as low as 8.75 nm. Moreover, the strategy has been successfully applied for label-free detection of CoA in real pig liver samples with good recoveries (93.3-108.0%). Notably, the synthesized CDs had durable fluorescence, low cytotoxicity, and good biocompatibility for cellular imaging, which demonstrated wide and promising applicability for biosensing and bioimaging in the future.

A pantothenate kinase-deficient mouse model reveals a gene expression program associated with brain coenzyme a reduction.

Pantothenate kinase (PanK) is the first enzyme in the coenzyme A (CoA) biosynthetic pathway. The differential expression of the four-active mammalian PanK isoforms regulates CoA levels in different tissues and PANK2 mutations lead to Pantothenate Kinase Associated Neurodegeneration (PKAN). The molecular mechanisms that potentially underlie PKAN pathophysiology are investigated in a mouse model of CoA deficiency in the central nervous system (CNS). Both PanK1 and PanK2 contribute to brain CoA levels in mice and so a mouse model with a systemic deletion of Pank1 together with neuronal deletion of Pank2 was generated. Neuronal Pank2 expression in double knockout mice decreased starting at P9-11 triggering a significant brain CoA deficiency. The depressed brain CoA in the mice correlates with abnormal forelimb flexing and weakness that, in turn, contributes to reduced locomotion and abnormal gait. Biochemical analysis reveals a reduction in short-chain acyl-CoAs, including acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA. Comparative gene expression analysis reveals that the CoA deficiency in brain is associated with a large elevation of Hif3a transcript expression and significant reduction of gene transcripts in heme and hemoglobin synthesis. Reduction of brain heme levels is associated with the CoA deficiency. The data suggest a response to oxygen/glucose deprivation and indicate a disruption of oxidative metabolism arising from a CoA deficiency in the CNS.

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase and Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle Enzymes Are Sensitive Targets of Traumatic Brain Injury Induced Metabolic Derangement.

Using a closed-head impact acceleration model of mild or severe traumatic brain injury (mTBI or sTBI, respectively) in rats, we evaluated the effects of graded head impacts on the gene and protein expressions of pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), as well as major enzymes of mitochondrial tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA). TBI was induced in anaesthetized rats by dropping 450 g from 1 (mTBI) or 2 m height (sTBI). After 6 h, 12 h, 24 h, 48 h, and 120 h gene expressions of enzymes and subunits of PDH. PDH kinases and phosphatases (PDK1-4 and PDP1-2, respectively), citrate synthase (CS), isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH), oxoglutarate dehydrogenase (OGDH), succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), succinyl-CoA synthase (SUCLG), and malate dehydrogenase (MDH) were determined in whole brain extracts (n = 6 rats at each time for both TBI levels). In the same samples, the high performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) determination of acetyl-coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) and free coenzyme A (CoA-SH) was performed. Sham-operated animals (n = 6) were used as controls. After mTBI, the results indicated a general transient decrease, followed by significant increases, in PDH and TCA gene expressions. Conversely, permanent PDH and TCA downregulation occurred following sTBI. The inhibitory conditions of PDH (caused by PDP1-2 downregulations and PDK1-4 overexpression) and SDH appeared to operate only after sTBI. This produced almost no change in acetyl-CoA and free CoA-SH following mTBI and a remarkable depletion of both compounds after sTBI. These results again demonstrated temporary or steady mitochondrial malfunctioning, causing minimal or profound modifications to energy-related metabolites, following mTBI or sTBI, respectively. Additionally, PDH and SDH appeared to be highly sensitive to traumatic insults and are deeply involved in mitochondrial-related energy metabolism imbalance.

Quantification of Coenzyme A in Cells and Tissues.

Emerging research has revealed that the cellular coenzyme A (CoA) supply can become limiting with a detrimental impact on growth, metabolism and survival. Measurement of cellular CoA is a challenge due to its relatively low abundance and the dynamic conversion of free CoA to CoA thioesters that, in turn, participate in numerous metabolic reactions. A method is described that navigates through potential pitfalls during sample preparation to yield an assay with a broad linear range of detection that is suitable for use in many biomedical laboratories.

Extending the Scope of 1H NMR Spectroscopy for the Analysis of Cellular Coenzyme A and Acetyl Coenzyme A.

Coenzyme A (CoA) and acetyl-coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) are ubiquitous cellular molecules, which mediate hundreds of anabolic and catabolic reactions including energy metabolism. Highly sensitive methods including absorption spectroscopy and mass spectrometry enable their analysis, albeit with many limitations. To date, however, NMR spectroscopy has not been used to analyze these important molecules. Building on our recent efforts, which enabled simultaneous analysis of a large number of metabolites in tissue and blood including many coenzymes and antioxidants ( Anal. Chem. 2016, 88, 4817-24; ibid 2017, 89, 4620-4627), we describe here a new method for identification and quantitation of CoA and acetyl-CoA ex vivo in tissue. Using mouse heart, kidney, liver, brain, and skeletal tissue, we show that a simple 1H NMR experiment can simultaneously measure these molecules. Identification of the two species involved a comprehensive analysis of the different tissue types using 1D and 2D NMR, in combination with spectral databases for standards, as well as spiking with authentic compounds. Time dependent studies showed that while the acetyl-CoA levels remain unaltered, CoA levels diminish by more than 50% within 24 h, which indicates that CoA is labile in solution; however, degassing the sample with helium gas halted its oxidation. Further, interestingly, we also identified endogenous coenzyme A glutathione disulfide (CoA-S-S-G) in tissue for the first time by NMR and show that CoA, when oxidized in tissue extract, also forms the same disulfide metabolite. The ability to simultaneously visualize absolute concentrations of CoA, acetyl-CoA, and endogenous CoA-S-S-G along with redox coenzymes (NAD+, NADH, NADP+, NADPH), energy coenzymes (ATP, ADP, AMP), antioxidants (GSH, GSSG), and a vast pool of other metabolites using a single 1D NMR spectrum offers a new avenue in the metabolomics field for investigation of cellular function in health and disease.

Characterization and validation of Entamoeba histolytica pantothenate kinase as a novel anti-amebic drug target.

The Coenzyme A (CoA), as a cofactor involved in >100 metabolic reactions, is essential to the basic biochemistry of life. Here, we investigated the CoA biosynthetic pathway of Entamoeba histolytica (E. histolytica), an enteric protozoan parasite responsible for human amebiasis. We identified four key enzymes involved in the CoA pathway: pantothenate kinase (PanK, EC 2.7.1.33), bifunctional phosphopantothenate-cysteine ligase/decarboxylase (PPCS-PPCDC), phosphopantetheine adenylyltransferase (PPAT) and dephospho-CoA kinase (DPCK). Cytosolic enzyme PanK, was selected for further biochemical, genetic, and phylogenetic characterization. Since E. histolytica PanK (EhPanK) is physiologically important and sufficiently divergent from its human orthologs, this enzyme represents an attractive target for the development of novel anti-amebic chemotherapies. Epigenetic gene silencing of PanK resulted in a significant reduction of PanK activity, intracellular CoA concentrations, and growth retardation in vitro, reinforcing the importance of this gene in E. histolytica. Furthermore, we screened the Kitasato Natural Products Library for inhibitors of recombinant EhPanK, and identified 14 such compounds. One compound demonstrated moderate inhibition of PanK activity and cell growth at a low concentration, as well as differential toxicity towards E. histolytica and human cells.

Unique electrocatalytic activity of a nucleic acid-mimicking coordination polymer for the sensitive detection of coenzyme A and histone acetyltransferase activity.

A nucleic acid-mimicking CoA-Ag(I) coordination polymer (CP) was in situ prepared and its unique electrocatalytic activity to H2O2 reduction was discovered. Based on it, a novel, label-free electrochemical sensor has been developed for the sensitive detection of coenzyme A (CoA) and histone acetyltransferase (HAT) activity.

LC-MS/MS-based analysis of coenzyme A and short-chain acyl-coenzyme A thioesters.

Absolute quantification of intracellular coenzyme A (CoA), coenzyme A disulfide, and short-chain acyl-coenzyme A thioesters was addressed by developing a tailored metabolite profiling method based on liquid chromatography in combination with tandem mass spectrometric detection (LC-MS/MS). A reversed phase chromatographic separation was established which is capable of separating a broad spectrum of CoA, its corresponding derivatives, and their isomers despite the fact that no ion-pairing reagent was used (which was considered as a key advantage of the method). Excellent analytical figures of merit such as high sensitivity (LODs in the nM to sub-nM range) and high repeatability (routinely 4 %; N = 15) were obtained. Method validation comprised a study on standard purity, stability, and recoveries during sample preparation. Uniformly labeled U(13)C yeast cell extracts offered ideal internal standards for validation purposes and for a quantification exercise in the rumen bacterium Megasphaera elsdenii.

Methods for measuring CoA and CoA derivatives in biological samples.

CoA (coenzyme A) is a ubiquitous and essential cofactor that acts as an acyl group carrier in biochemical reactions. Apart from participating in numerous metabolic pathways as substrates and intermediates, CoA and a number of its thioester derivatives, such as acetyl-CoA, can also directly regulate the activity of proteins by allosteric mechanisms and by affecting protein acetylation reactions. Cellular levels of CoA and CoA thioesters change under various physiological and pathological conditions. Defective CoA biosynthesis is implicated in NBIA (neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation). However, the exact role of CoA in the pathogenesis of NBIA is not well understood. Accurate and reliable assays for measuring CoA species in biological samples are essential for studying the roles of CoA and CoA derivatives in health and disease. The present mini-review discusses methods that are commonly used to measure CoA species in biological samples.

Nontargeted profiling of coenzyme A thioesters in biological samples by tandem mass spectrometry.

Coenzyme A (CoA) thioesters are ubiquitously present in metabolic networks and play a pivotal role in enzymatic formation and cleavage of carbon-carbon bonds. We present a method allowing nontargeted profiling of CoA-thioesters in biological samples. The reported UHPLC-MS/MS approach employes ion-pairing chromatography to separate CoA-metabolites carrying different chemical functionalities such as hydroxyl or multiple carboxyl groups and to distinguish between isomers. Selective detection of CoA-thioesters is accomplished by precursor ion scanning on a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer and takes advantage of the abundant fragment with m/z = -408 that originates from the CoA-moiety. We used a mixture of 19 commercially available CoA-derivatives to develop and optimize our method. As a proof of concept we demonstrated detection of the major CoA-intermediates of branched chain amino acid degradation in biological samples. We then applied our method to investigate degradation of lipids in the microorganism Mycobacterium smegmatis. Profiling of CoA-thioesters led to the discovery of a novel intermediate of cholesterol degradation. This demonstrates the power of our method for untargeted profiling of CoA-thioesters and adds a missing link in mycobacterial cholesterol catabolism.

D-pantethine has vitamin activity equivalent to d-pantothenic acids for recovering from a deficiency of D-pantothenic acid in rats.

D-Pantethine is a compound in which two molecules of D-pantetheine bind through an S-S linkage. D-Pantethine is available from commercial sources as well as from D-pantothenic acid. We investigated if D-pantethine has the same vitamin activity as D-pantothenic acid by comparing the recovery from a deficiency of D-pantothenic acid in rats. D-Pantothenic acid-deficient rats were developed by weaning rats on a diet lacking D-pantothenic acid for 47 d. At that time, the urinary excretion of D-pantothenic acid was almost zero, and the body weight extremely low, compared with the control (p<0.05); the contents of free D-pantothenic acid were also significantly reduced in comparison with those of controls (p<0.05). D-Pantothenic acid-deficient rats were administered a diet containing D-pantothenic acid or D-pantethine for 7 d. D-Pantethine and D-pantothenic acid contents of the diets were equimolar in forms of D-pantothenic acid. We compared various parameters concerning nutritional status between rats fed D-pantothenic acid- and D-pantethine-containing diets. The recoveries of body weight, tissue weights, and tissue concentrations of free D-pantothenic acid, dephospho-CoA, CoA, and acetyl-CoA were identical between rats fed diets containing D-pantothenic acid and D-pantethine. Thus, the biological efficiency for recovering from a deficiency of D-pantothenic acid in rats was equivalent between D-pantothenic acid and D-pantethine.

Simultaneous high-performance liquid chromatography determination of coenzyme A, dephospho-coenzyme A, and acetyl-coenzyme A in normal and pantothenic acid-deficient rats.

We describe here a simultaneous high-performance liquid chromatography method for practical and rapid determination of coenzyme A (CoA), dephospho-CoA, and acetyl-CoA in tissues. These coenzymes are biosynthesized from the vitamin pantothenic acid (PaA), which is involved in the metabolism of fatty acids, amino acid catabolism, and several other nutrients. The method employed a Tosoh TSK-GEL ODS-100 V column (250×4.6mm i.d., particle size 5µm) eluted with 100mmol/L NaH(2)PO(4) and 75mmol/L CH(3)COONa (pH was adjusted to 4.6 by the addition of concentrated H(3)PO(4))-acetonitrile (94:6, v/v) at a flow rate of 1.0ml/min. The ultraviolet detector was set at 259nm. The limits of detection for CoA, dephospho-CoA, and acetyl-CoA all were 10pmol. The method was applied to the analysis of several tissues of rats fed normal and PaA-free diets. The results clearly showed that the method was suitable for the simultaneous determination of CoA, dephospho-CoA, and acetyl-CoA in the liver, heart, kidney, spleen, testis, large colon, and muscle, but not for the small intestine, of rats.

Coenzyme A contained in mothers' milk is associated with the potential to induce atopic dermatitis.

T(h)2 adjuvant activity can be qualitatively and quantitatively evaluated using a mixed lymphocyte reaction and by changes in the intracellular cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate concentration, using human dendritic cells in vitro. The current study shows that mothers, whose children (n = 55) developed atopic dermatitis (AD) within 6 months after birth, often demonstrate a higher T(h)2 adjuvant activity in their milk, in comparison to those whose children did not develop such symptoms. Such an activity was recovered in a liquid phase of mothers' milk and was eluted as a single fraction by reversed-phase HPLC. Further analysis of this fraction by mass spectrometry showed that signals originating from a factor with a molecular weight of 767.53 are observed, exclusively in milk with a high T(h)2 adjuvant activity. The mass is exactly that of Coenzyme A (CoA), and indeed, a low concentration of CoA exhibited T(h)2 adjuvant activity both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, mesenteric lymph node non-T cells obtained from mice that were orally treated with CoA led allogeneic naive CD4(+) T cells to differentiate into T(h)2. Furthermore, the oral administration of CoA induced rough skin, hyperplasia of the epidermis, hypergranulosis in the spinous layer and the thickening of the stratum in mice. These data collectively indicate that some of the patients with AD were exposed to mothers' milk carrying high T(h)2 adjuvant activity right after birth, which may be attributable to presence of CoA contained in the milk.

Coenzyme A and its thioester pools in fasted and fed rat tissues.

Levels of three coenzyme A (CoA) molecular species, i.e., nonesterified CoA (CoASH), acetyl-CoA, and malonyl-CoA, in fasted and fed rat tissues were analyzed by the acyl-CoA cycling method which makes detection possible at the pmol level. Malonyl-CoA in brain tissues readily increased with feeding, and inversely, acetyl-CoA decreased. This phenomenon occurred in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata, as well as in the hypothalamus which controls energy balance by monitoring malonyl-CoA. In the non-brain tissues, the sizes of the acetyl-CoA, malonyl-CoA, and CoASH pools depended on the tissues. The total CoA pools consisting of the above three CoA species in the liver, heart, and brown adipose tissue were larger and those of the perirenal, epididymal, and ovarian adipose tissues were much smaller, compared with those of other tissues including brain tissues. In addition, the response of each CoA pool to feeding was not uniform, suggesting that the tissue-specific metabolism individually functions in the non-brain tissues. Thus, a comprehensive analysis of thirteen types of rat tissue revealed that CoA pools have different sizes and showed a different response to fasting and feeding depending on the tissue.